OOP Fundamentals - Architecture Insights

Core OOP Pillars

Object-Oriented Programming is built on four fundamental pillars that work together to create maintainable, scalable software systems.

Abstraction

Definition: Hide complex implementation details while exposing a simple, clear interface.

Key Principles of Abstraction

Focus on what an object does rather than how it does it
Define contracts through interfaces and abstract classes
Reduce complexity by hiding unnecessary details

Example:

// Abstract interface - defines what, not how
public interface IPaymentProcessor
{
    Task<PaymentResult> ProcessPayment(decimal amount);
    Task<bool> RefundPayment(string transactionId);
}

// Concrete implementation - defines how
public class StripePaymentProcessor : IPaymentProcessor
{
    private readonly string apiKey;

    public StripePaymentProcessor(string apiKey)
    {
        this.apiKey = apiKey;
    }

    public async Task<PaymentResult> ProcessPayment(decimal amount)
    {
        // Complex Stripe API logic hidden from caller
        var charge = await CreateStripeCharge(amount, apiKey);
        return new PaymentResult { Success = true, TransactionId = charge.Id };
    }

    public async Task<bool> RefundPayment(string transactionId)
    {
        // Complex refund logic abstracted away
        await ProcessStripeRefund(transactionId);
        return true;
    }

    private async Task<StripeCharge> CreateStripeCharge(decimal amount, string key) { /* ... */ }
    private async Task ProcessStripeRefund(string id) { /* ... */ }
}

// Consumer doesn't need to know implementation details
public class OrderService
{
    private readonly IPaymentProcessor paymentProcessor;

    public OrderService(IPaymentProcessor paymentProcessor)
    {
        this.paymentProcessor = paymentProcessor;
    }

    public async Task CompleteOrder(Order order)
    {
        // Simple interface - complexity is abstracted
        var result = await paymentProcessor.ProcessPayment(order.Total);
        if (result.Success)
        {
            order.MarkAsPaid(result.TransactionId);
        }
    }
}

Encapsulation

Definition: Bundle data and methods that operate on that data within a single unit, controlling access through visibility modifiers.

Encapsulation bundles data and methods that operate on that data within a single unit, controlling access through visibility modifiers.

Key Principles of Encapsulation

Keep internal state private
Expose behavior through public methods
Use properties for controlled access to data
Protect object invariants

Example:

public class BankAccount
{
    // Private fields - internal state is hidden
    private decimal balance;
    private readonly List<Transaction> transactions = new();

    // Public property with controlled access
    public string AccountNumber { get; }
    public decimal Balance => balance; // Read-only access

    public BankAccount(string accountNumber, decimal initialBalance)
    {
        if (initialBalance < 0)
            throw new ArgumentException("Initial balance cannot be negative");

        AccountNumber = accountNumber;
        balance = initialBalance;
    }

    // Public methods control how state can be modified
    public void Deposit(decimal amount)
    {
        if (amount <= 0)
            throw new ArgumentException("Deposit amount must be positive");

        balance += amount;
        transactions.Add(new Transaction(TransactionType.Deposit, amount));
    }

    public bool Withdraw(decimal amount)
    {
        if (amount <= 0)
            throw new ArgumentException("Withdrawal amount must be positive");

        if (amount > balance)
            return false; // Insufficient funds

        balance -= amount;
        transactions.Add(new Transaction(TransactionType.Withdrawal, amount));
        return true;
    }

    // Encapsulated business logic
    public IReadOnlyList<Transaction> GetRecentTransactions(int count)
    {
        return transactions.TakeLast(count).ToList().AsReadOnly();
    }
}

Inheritance

Definition: Create new classes based on existing classes, establishing “is-a” relationships and enabling code reuse.

Key Principles of Inheritance

Use inheritance for true "is-a" relationships
Prefer composition over inheritance when possible
Follow the Liskov Substitution Principle
Avoid deep inheritance hierarchies (3+ levels)

Example:

// Base class with common functionality
public abstract class Employee
{
    public string Name { get; set; }
    public string EmployeeId { get; set; }
    public decimal BaseSalary { get; set; }

    // Virtual method can be overridden
    public virtual decimal CalculateMonthlyPay()
    {
        return BaseSalary / 12;
    }

    // Abstract method must be implemented
    public abstract string GetEmployeeType();

    public void DisplayInfo()
    {
        Console.WriteLine($"{GetEmployeeType()}: {Name} ({EmployeeId})");
        Console.WriteLine($"Monthly Pay: ${CalculateMonthlyPay():F2}");
    }
}

// Derived class - SalariedEmployee "is-an" Employee
public class SalariedEmployee : Employee
{
    public override string GetEmployeeType() => "Salaried Employee";
}

// Derived class with additional behavior
public class HourlyEmployee : Employee
{
    public decimal HourlyRate { get; set; }
    public int HoursWorked { get; set; }

    // Override to change behavior
    public override decimal CalculateMonthlyPay()
    {
        return HourlyRate * HoursWorked;
    }

    public override string GetEmployeeType() => "Hourly Employee";
}

// Derived class with bonus structure
public class CommissionEmployee : Employee
{
    public decimal CommissionRate { get; set; }
    public decimal Sales { get; set; }

    public override decimal CalculateMonthlyPay()
    {
        return base.CalculateMonthlyPay() + (Sales * CommissionRate);
    }

    public override string GetEmployeeType() => "Commission Employee";
}

Modern Alternative: Composition Over Inheritance

// Interface defines capability
public interface IPayCalculator
{
    decimal CalculatePay();
}

// Different calculation strategies
public class SalaryCalculator : IPayCalculator
{
    private readonly decimal annualSalary;

    public SalaryCalculator(decimal annualSalary)
    {
        this.annualSalary = annualSalary;
    }

    public decimal CalculatePay() => annualSalary / 12;
}

public class HourlyCalculator : IPayCalculator
{
    private readonly decimal hourlyRate;
    private readonly int hoursWorked;

    public HourlyCalculator(decimal hourlyRate, int hoursWorked)
    {
        this.hourlyRate = hourlyRate;
        this.hoursWorked = hoursWorked;
    }

    public decimal CalculatePay() => hourlyRate * hoursWorked;
}

// Employee uses composition instead of inheritance
public class ModernEmployee
{
    public string Name { get; set; }
    public string EmployeeId { get; set; }

    // Composition - has-a relationship
    private readonly IPayCalculator payCalculator;

    public ModernEmployee(string name, string employeeId, IPayCalculator payCalculator)
    {
        Name = name;
        EmployeeId = employeeId;
        this.payCalculator = payCalculator;
    }

    public decimal GetMonthlyPay() => payCalculator.CalculatePay();
}

Polymorphism

Definition: Objects of different types can be treated as instances of the same type, with behavior determined at runtime.

Polymorphism allows objects of different types to be treated as instances of the same type, with behavior determined at runtime.

Key Principles of Polymorphism

Enable flexible, extensible code
Support method overriding (runtime polymorphism)
Support method overloading (compile-time polymorphism)
Work with abstractions, not concrete types

Runtime Polymorphism Example:

public interface IShape
{
    double CalculateArea();
    void Draw();
}

public class Circle : IShape
{
    public double Radius { get; set; }

    public double CalculateArea() => Math.PI * Radius * Radius;

    public void Draw() => Console.WriteLine($"Drawing circle with radius {Radius}");
}

public class Rectangle : IShape
{
    public double Width { get; set; }
    public double Height { get; set; }

    public double CalculateArea() => Width * Height;

    public void Draw() => Console.WriteLine($"Drawing rectangle {Width}x{Height}");
}

public class Triangle : IShape
{
    public double Base { get; set; }
    public double Height { get; set; }

    public double CalculateArea() => 0.5 * Base * Height;

    public void Draw() => Console.WriteLine($"Drawing triangle with base {Base} and height {Height}");
}

// Polymorphic usage - treat all shapes uniformly
public class ShapeProcessor
{
    public void ProcessShapes(IEnumerable<IShape> shapes)
    {
        foreach (var shape in shapes)
        {
            // Polymorphism - actual method called depends on runtime type
            shape.Draw();
            Console.WriteLine($"Area: {shape.CalculateArea():F2}\n");
        }
    }

    public double CalculateTotalArea(IEnumerable<IShape> shapes)
    {
        return shapes.Sum(s => s.CalculateArea());
    }
}

// Usage
var shapes = new List<IShape>
{
    new Circle { Radius = 5 },
    new Rectangle { Width = 10, Height = 20 },
    new Triangle { Base = 8, Height = 6 }
};

var processor = new ShapeProcessor();
processor.ProcessShapes(shapes);
Console.WriteLine($"Total area: {processor.CalculateTotalArea(shapes):F2}");

Advanced OOP Concepts

Covariance

Definition: Use a more derived type than originally specified (out parameters, return types).

// Covariance with IEnumerable<out T>
IEnumerable<string> strings = new List<string> { "hello", "world" };
IEnumerable<object> objects = strings; // Valid - string is derived from object

// Covariance with delegates
Func<string> funcString = () => "Hello";
Func<object> funcObject = funcString; // Valid - returns more specific type

Contravariance

Definition: Use a more generic type than originally specified (in parameters).

// Contravariance with Action<in T>
Action<object> actionObject = (obj) => Console.WriteLine(obj);
Action<string> actionString = actionObject; // Valid - can accept more general parameter

// Contravariance with comparison
IComparer<object> objectComparer = Comparer<object>.Default;
IComparer<string> stringComparer = objectComparer; // Valid with contravariant interface

Invariance

Definition: Use only the originally specified type (mutable collections).

// Invariance with List<T>
List<string> strings = new List<string>();
// List<object> objects = strings; // ERROR - List is invariant

// Why? Because we could add any object to the list, breaking type safety
// objects.Add(new Employee()); // Would add Employee to List<string>!

Quick Reference

When to Use Each Pillar

Pillar	Use When	Avoid When
Abstraction	Hiding complex implementation, defining contracts	Simple, straightforward code
Encapsulation	Protecting internal state, enforcing invariants	Data transfer objects (DTOs)
Inheritance	True “is-a” relationships, minimal hierarchy	Code reuse alone (use composition)
Polymorphism	Working with families of related types	Single concrete implementation

Common Anti-Patterns

Anemic Domain Model:

// BAD - Data without behavior
public class Order
{
    public int Id { get; set; }
    public decimal Total { get; set; }
    public List<OrderItem> Items { get; set; }
}

// GOOD - Encapsulated behavior
public class Order
{
    private readonly List<OrderItem> items = new();
    public int Id { get; }
    public decimal Total => items.Sum(i => i.Subtotal);
    public IReadOnlyList<OrderItem> Items => items.AsReadOnly();

    public void AddItem(OrderItem item)
    {
        if (item == null)
            throw new ArgumentNullException(nameof(item));
        items.Add(item);
    }
}

Inappropriate Intimacy:

// BAD - Classes too tightly coupled
public class Customer
{
    public List<Order> Orders { get; set; }
}

public class OrderProcessor
{
    public void Process(Customer customer)
    {
        // Direct manipulation of internal collections
        customer.Orders.RemoveAll(o => o.IsCancelled);
    }
}

// GOOD - Proper encapsulation
public class Customer
{
    private readonly List<Order> orders = new();

    public void RemoveCancelledOrders()
    {
        orders.RemoveAll(o => o.IsCancelled);
    }
}